there are basically types of vector control method

For diseases where there is no effective cure, such as West Nile Virus and Dengue fever, vector control remains the only way to protect populations. Acta Trop. © 2021 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Zeller HG, Schuffenecker I: West Nile virus: an overview of its spread in europe and the Mediterranean Basin in contrast to its spread in the Americas. Aerial insecticide applications being largely adopted in the US are basically not allowed in the EU. Latham M, Barber J: Mosquito control in Florida with focus on aerial adulticiding. bacteria formulations are available on the EU market or in the process of being marketed in the near future (see Biocides used in Europe section). Based on the available evidence an overview of the use of the currently existing vector control methods is presented in Table 1. Marten GG, Nguyen M, Mason BJ, Ngo G: Natural control of Culex quinquefasciatus larvae in residential ditches by the copepod Macrocyclops albidus. Although there is no feedback signal from a sensor, the Part of Emerg Infect Dis. New Engl J Med. The basic schemes of indirect and direct methods of vector control are shown in ... method [11]. Mutebi JP, Delorey MJ, Jones RC, Plate DK, Gerber SI, Gibbs KP, Sun GH, Cohen NJ, Paul WS: The impact of adulticide applications on mosquito density in Chicago, 2005. Vector control is any method to limit or eradicate the mammals, birds, insects or other arthropods (here collectively called "vectors") which transmit disease pathogens.The most frequent type of vector control is mosquito control using a variety of strategies. A number of traps have been developed to attract, catch and kill large numbers of mosquitoes, thus removing them from the target area. Recently, various essential oils have been proposed as insect repellents, but their protection against anthropophilic species is considered low [78–82]. For pathogens to persist over long periods of time they require reservoirswhere they normally reside. Prevention and control of WNV infection should be based on an integrated preparedness plan taking into consideration surveillance, communication, IVM activities, intersectoral collaboration, and evaluation. Esteves A, Almeida APG, Galao RP, Parreira R, Piedade J, Rodrigues JC, Sousa CA, Novo MT: West Nile virus in Southern Portugal, 2004. 2007, 44 (3): 470-477. Appl Environ Microb. Plos One. Article  Sanford MR, Chan K, Walton WE: Effects of inorganic nitrogen enrichment on mosquitoes (Diptera : Culicidae) and the associated aquatic community in constructed treatment wetlands. WVB is a medical entomologist working at the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Reisen WK, Fang Y, Lothrop HD, Martinez VM, Wilson J, O'Connor P, Carney R, Cahoon-Young B, Shafii M, Brault AC: Overwintering of West Nile virus in southern California. Emerg Infect Dis. Loeb M, Elliott SJ, Gibson B, Fearon M, Nosal R, Drebot M, D'Cuhna C, Harrington D, Smith S, George P, Eyles J: Protective behavior and West Nile virus risk. IVM is intended to utilize the best cost-benefit combination of all available control methods in a sustainable way respecting the environment in order to reduce the vector density and/or the vector-human contacts to levels not posing a public health concern. 3 is an imposed constant. Ishii T, Sohn SR: Highly polluted larval habitats of the Culex pipiens complex in central Sweden. The current ground application technology for mosquito control mainly refers to equipment able to produce thermal or cold aerosols with particle dimensions of a defined range. The fundamental of vector control implementation can be explained by help of figure below where the machine model is represented in synchronously rotating reference frame. Bonds JAS: Ultra-low-volume space sprays in mosquito control: a critical review. The use of these products is usually allowed even in naturally protected areas. Chemical larval control can only be done by ground application targeting previously mapped breeding sites. Palmisano CT, Taylor V, Caillouet K, Byrd B, Wesson DM: Impact of West Nile virus outbreak upon St. Tammany Parish Mosquito Abatement District. Edited by: Halwart M, Gupta VM. Report prepared for Redland Shire Council by Pat Dale Faculty of Environmental Sciences Griffith University, August 1997. J Am Mosq Contr Assoc. endstream endobj 445 0 obj<>/Metadata 81 0 R/Pages 80 0 R/StructTreeRoot 83 0 R/Type/Catalog/Lang(en-US)>> endobj 446 0 obj<>/MediaBox[0 0 720 540]/Resources<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageB/ImageC/ImageI]/ExtGState<>>>/Type/Page>> endobj 447 0 obj<>/A<>/F 4/StructParent 1>> endobj 448 0 obj<> endobj 449 0 obj<>stream Source reduction can include simple activities such as the proper disposal of containers in backyards and the cleaning of rain gutters by property owners, to agronomic practices aimed at the reduction of standing waters, to extensive regional water management projects on public land. ICMR Bull. Brochures were least successful, indicating that they may be ineffective for this type of communication. Peterson C, Coats J: Insect repellents. Mulla MS, Thavara U, Tawatsin A, Chomposrf J, Su TY: Emergence of resistance and resistance management in field populations of tropical Culex quinquefasciatus to the microbial control agent Bacillus sphaericus. The identification of the best vector control methods is therefore not always straightforward. Basically there are various methods of indirect vector control of which Kalman filter, MRAS, sliding mode observer are in major use in earlier days, and hence these methods are prone to numerical & steady errors due to large Keiser J, Maltese MF, Erlanger TE, Bos R, Tanner M, Singer BH, Utzinger J: Effect of irrigated rice agriculture on Japanese encephalitis, including challenges and opportunities for integrated vector management. These campaigns are not suggested as a routine preventative method for outbreaks of WNV infection, but they need to be connected to an active surveillance system in order to be activated only in case of real risk (see Vector control decision making process section). The practical implications of a vector control program targeting overwintering mosquito females need further evaluation. Vegetation may have a negative effect on ULV treatment efficacy by filtering the aerosol leading to a reduction in the amount of pesticide available to impact the mosquito, and by reducing wind speed in the canopy thus reducing aerosol dispersion. modestus playing a role in specific regions [34]. There are two ways to combat pests: the active or the passive method. Google Scholar. Prevention of WNV infection is intended before the occurrence of equine or human cases, while control of WNV infection is considered following the occurrence of at least one case of WNV infection. Fish species such as Gambusia spp. 2006, 43 (5): 828-832. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-7-323, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-7-323. Hubalek Z, Lukacova L, Halouzka J, Sirucek P, Januska J, Precechtelova J, Prochazka P: Import of West Nile virus infection in the Czech Republic. Therefore, there is an urgent need to analyse the European experiences on the prevention and control of outbreaks of WNV infection in order to optimize resources while keeping the risk of acquiring the infection at an acceptable level. Chaves LF, Keogh CL, Vazquez-Prokopec GM, Kitron UD: Combined sewage overflow enhances oviposition of Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) in urban areas. They have limitations because they require good water quality and have been shown to be highly effective on Aedes, while only relatively effective on Culex species [58, 61]. 2007, 23 (2): 241-251. CAS  2005, 5 (4): 410-413. There are basically three types of permanent magnet synchronous machines. To be effective, vector control programs require a strong organisational backbone and co-ordination between the different stakeholders from the central to the community level relying on a previously defined plan, skilled technicians and operators, appropriate equipment, and sufficient financial resources. West Nile virus (WNV) infection is a viral disease transmitted by mosquitoes and distributed worldwide. There are four primary types of motor control methods for induction motors connected to VFDs: V/f (volts-per-hertz), V/f with encoder, open-loop vector, and closed-loop vector. A new insecticide, Spinosad, derived via fermentation from the naturally occurring soil actinomycete, Saccharopolyspora spinosa, is also available in some countries and in the marketing process in others. 2001, 38 (5): 657-664. Reservoirs can be living organisms or nonliving sites. Coll Antropol. J Vector Ecol. Nasci RS, Savage HM, White DJ, Miller JR, Cropp BC, Godsey MS, Kerst AJ, Bennett P, Gottfried K, Lanciotti RS: West Nile virus in overwintering Culex mosquitoes, New York City, 2000. 2008, 24 (4): 528-533. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/surv&control_archive.htm, http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/healthtopics/west_nile_fever/West-Nile-fever-maps/pages/index.aspx, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1405494848373&uri=CELEX:02007R1451-20130901, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0, http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/. 2009, 23 (5): 555-563. 2013, Stockholm: European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Mouchet J, Rageau J, Laumond C, Hannoun C, Beytout D, Oudar J, Corniou B, Chippaux A: [Epidemiology of West Nile virus: study of a focus in Camargue. 2010, 26 (1): 43-49. [102] evaluated the 2003 WNV public education campaign in Kansas. 2008, 8 (4): 475-489. Most West Nile virus vector control experiences have been recently developed in the US, where ecological conditions are different from the EU and vector control is organized under a different regulatory frame. Kline DL: Semiochemicals, traps/targets and mass trapping technology for mosquito management. Pathogens may have … 2009, 46 (2): 220-226. [77] in Ontario, Canada. 2006, 12 (7): 1163-1164. 2007, 18: 178-183. A cost-effectiveness analysis of vector control generically starts from a problem and presuppose an analysis of costs and effectiveness of each alternative solution [103]. The vast majority of human cases remain asymptomatic and severe neuroinvasive illness is reported in less than 1% of infected people [3, 4]. These environments may also become contaminated with pathogens in human feces, pathogens shed by intermediate hosts, or pathogens contained in the remains of intermediate hosts. Barber LM, Schleier JJ, Peterson RKD: Economic cost analysis of West Nile virus outbreak, Sacramento County, California, USA, 2005. If a large area is involved it becomes quite difficult to organize an effective adult control program using ground application only. Vector control taking place in the Southern United States during the 1920s. J Am Mosq Contr Assoc. Outlook Pest Manag. Reddy MR, Spielman A, Lepore TJ, Henley D, Kiszewski AE, Reiter P: Efficacy of resmethrin aerosols applied from the road for suppressing Culex vectors of West Nile virus. The activation of the plan should be based on the surveillance data from the four possible basic indicators: mosquitoes, birds, horses and humans. The extrapolation of information produced in North America to Europe might be limited because of the seemingly lower level of WNV transmission in the European region probably due to the long-time exposure of wild bird populations resulting in an ecosystem that is less suitable for large outbreaks. 2013, 13 (10): 723-732. use of vector control produces stable characteristics where the actual speed can follow a reference frequency in the same way as a servomotor. California Privacy Statement, The most effective repellent substances are: DEET (N,N Diethyl Toluamide), Picaridin (1-(1methylpropylcarbonyl)-2-(hydroxyethyl)-piperidine), also known as KBR, and IR3535. METHODS TO COMBAT PESTS. Between the different available tools for self-protection, repellents play an important role as they protect people when outdoors for normal activities. No. Enayati A, Hemingway J, Garner P: Electronic mosquito repellents for preventing mosquito bites and malaria infection. Terms and Conditions, CAS  The reason why such an effort has never been made in Europe has obviously come from the smaller impact the WNV infection had on public health, with sporadic incursions in sensitive areas and long periods of silence and non-evident circulation. CAS  Vector control cost was estimated as ≈ $701,790. 1997. Vector-Borne Zoon Dis. The economic impact of the outbreak (including medical cost to treat cases and patients’ productivity loss) has been estimated as ≈ $2.28 million (equal to 13,987 $/case). 2007, 39 (1): 70-71. PubMed  2003, 33 (7): 69-73. Vector-Borne Zoon Dis. Avian Pathol. Euro Surveill. 2012, 26 (2): 121-130. For some diseases, such as dengue, chikungunya and Zika virus disease, vector control is the only method available to protect populations. Hence, the cost-benefit of vector control in the US compared to the EU might be very different and requires a careful specific evaluation. Direct larval control using chemical larvicides may be implemented using different products depending on the natural values of the target environment. Med Vet Entomol. Commission Regulation (EC) No 1451/2007 of 4 December 2007 on the second phase of the 10-year work programme referred to in Article 16(2) of Directive 98/8/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning the placing of biocidal products on the market.http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1405494848373&uri=CELEX:02007R1451-20130901, WHO: Ultra-Low-Volume application of insecticides for vector control. 2010, 15 (34): 19644-. endstream endobj 460 0 obj<>/Size 444/Type/XRef>>stream Hence a larval control program must be in place in the areas known as susceptible to outbreaks of WNV infection (see Vector control decision making process section, Table 1). In 1996, Romania reported the largest outbreak of WNV infection in humans to date inside the EU, with over 390 confirmed cases [12]. Elnaiem DEA, Kelley K, Wright S, Laffey R, Yoshimura G, Reed M, Goodman G, Thiemann T, Reimer L, Reisen WK, Brown D: Impact of aerial spraying of pyrethrin insecticide on Culex pipiens and Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae) abundance and West Nile virus infection rates in an urban/suburban area of Sacramento County. These compounds have good safety margins in terms of acute toxicity for warm blooded animals but are toxic for non target insect species and aquatic organisms [87–90]. In case of an ongoing large epidemic there might be an emergency exception under the responsibility of regional or country authorities. 2006, 22 (3): 457-463. There are 4 primary types of motor control methods used to control induction motors connected to a VFD. 2004, 23 (3): 147-156. CAS  J Aquat Plant Manage. Biological Pest Control. Euro Surveill. Yet, the implementation of IVM is hampered by the complexity of the WNV transmission cycle, the difficulties in estimating the size of the forthcoming outbreak in a timely matter and the related risk assessment. Hence this trigger, one case of WNV infection according to the EU case definition, was used as a definition of an outbreak in this paper. Bacillus sphaericus formulations are present in some countries (i.e. Haq S: Developing larvivorous fish network for mosquito control in urban areas: a case study. Correspondence to This work was financed by the ECDC specific contract ECD.3191. Removable covers should be replaced every time water is removed and should be well maintained to prevent damage that permits mosquitoes to get in and out. J Am Mosq Contr Assoc. Anderson JF, Main AJ: Importance of vertical and horizontal transmission of West Nile virus by Culex pipiens in the northeastern United States. Direct biological larval control includes methods to enhance the activity of natural antagonists by introducing bio-control agents such as fishes and copepods or by allowing natural predators to colonise isolated water bodies by digging ditches to connect them [53–59]. Multiple sequential treatments may be necessary to reduce Culex female density to a level where reduction of WNV infection may be observed. Centro Agricoltura Ambiente “G.Nicoli”, Via Argini Nord 3351, Crevalcore, 40014, Italy, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, Stockholm, Sweden, You can also search for this author in Almeida APG, Galao RP, Sousa CA, Novo MT, Parreira R, Pinto J, Piedade J, Esteves A: Potential mosquito vectors of arboviruses in Portugal: species, distribution, abundance and West Nile infection. Google Scholar. 1993, Geneva: WHO. Chaskopoulou A, Dovas CI, Chaintoutis SC, Kashefi J, Koehler P, Papanastassopoulou M: Detection and early warning of West Nile Virus circulation in Central Macedonia, Greece, using sentinel chickens and mosquitoes. Showyin LR: Recent developments on personal protection methods against vectors. Google Scholar. A cost-benefit analysis indicated that only 15 cases of WNV neuroinvasive disease would need to be prevented to make the emergency spray cost-effective [105]. Predacious indigenous copepods such as Macrocyclops albidus may easily be reared and introduced in artificial containers where they reproduce and strongly reduce mosquito larval density [60]. 2001, 12: 154-158. Containers can be fitted with tight lids or, if rain-filled, tightly-fitted mesh screens can allow for rainwater to be harvested from roofs while keeping mosquitoes out. 1981, 41: 233-240. 2005, 9: 143-147. PubMed  Before defining these motor control methods and deciphering what makes each one unique, there is one commonality shared by all four. 2013, 18 (43): 20613-. A practitioner’s guide. Domanovic D, Giesecke J: How to define an area where transmission of arthropod-borne disease is occurring?. Am J Trop Med Hygiene. J Am Mosq Contr Assoc. J Am Mosq Contr Assoc. 1994, 19 (2): 87-99. WHO: The use of fish for mosquito control. J Med Entomol. Del Giudice P, Schuffenecker I, Vandenbos F, Counillon E, Zeller H: Human West Nile virus, France. Emerg Infect Dis. While resting in wetland areas they might come in contact with the local mosquito species, and possibly initiate a local amplification cycle. farmers, land owners, scholars) aimed to promote the adoption of appropriate behaviour. Andis MD, Sackett SR, Carroll MK, Bordes ES: Strategies for the emergency control of arboviral epidemics in New Orleans. Article  Lothrop H, Lothrop B, Palmer M, Wheeler S, Gutierrez A, Gomsi D, Reisen WK: Evaluation of pyrethrin and permethrin ground ultra-low volume applications for adult Culex control in rural and urban environments of the Coachella Valley of California. The role of larval control to contain outbreaks of WNV infection should be considered as part of an IVM program (see Vector control decision making process section). For low-speed, high starting torque applications, we recommend drives that employ Sensorless Flux Vector Control (SVC). None-native English speakers were less informed than native ones. J Vector Ecol. France, Germany), while in the process of being marketed in the near future in other countries. Therefore, there is an urgent need to analyse the European experiences of the prevention and control of outbreaks of West Nile virus infection and to perform robust cost-benefit analysis that can guide the implementation of the appropriate control measures. Regular information campaigns may be organized targeting the most relevant citizen groups (e.g. Indirect Quadrature Control Methods In this case, there is no flux control loop, and in Fig. Some concerns have been raised on the possibility that following the procedure few products will available for vector control thus weakening our capacity to protect communities from vector-borne diseases. Emerg Infect Dis. Unfortunately there is little widely available information to guide non-specialists in vector control techniques. Fradin MS, Day JF: Comparative efficacy of insect repellents against mosquito bites. T Roy Soc Trop Med H. 2008, 102 (8): 823-832. 2010, 4: 29-37. J Am Mosq Contr Assoc. In 2005, an outbreak of WNV infection occurred in Sacramento County, California, where 163 human cases were reported. Updated information can be found on the website (http://www.who.int/whopes/en/). Rizzo C, Vescio F, Declich S, Finarelli AC, Macini P, Mattivi A, Rossini G, Piovesan C, Barzon L, Palu G, Gobbi F, Macchi L, Pavan A, Magurano F, Ciufolini MG, Nicoletti L, Salmaso S, Rezza G: West Nile virus transmission with human cases in Italy, August-September 2009. Basically, there are two methods of determing rotor flux angle in vector control. 2005, 42 (5): 766-776. J Am Mosq Contr Assoc. 2008, 14 (5): 747-754. The environmental toxicity and broad action spectrum of the available insecticides for mosquito adult control implies that they can only be used in case of real need and focused on well-defined target areas. California. Effective surveillance must be maintained during vector control activities to determine if and when re-treatment is required to maintain suppression of the vector populations. Environ Health Persp. PubMed  PubMed Google Scholar. Euro Surveill. 2005, 365 (9459): 613-617. The WHO defines IVM as “a rational decision-making process for the optimal use of resources for vector control” [36]. Personal protection methods from mosquito bites include the use of space or topical repellents, the installation of mosquito screens over windows, wearing protective clothes (such as long sleeves and long pants), the adoption of preventative behaviour useful to help to avoid or reduce exposure to mosquito bites (i.e. PubMed  reasons, attention has shifted to methods that can be applied by individuals and communities to protect themselves from vector-borne disease. Calistri P, Giovannini A, Hubalek Z, Ionescu A, Monaco F, Savini G, Lelli R: Epidemiology of west nile in europe and in the mediterranean basin. CAS  Petersen LR, Carson PJ, Biggerstaff BJ, Custer B, Borchardt SM, Busch MP: Estimated cumulative incidence of West Nile virus infection in US adults, 1999-2010. ¹­fïèàè 0ÙÁ¡$ bJJJ@Š"SÒ×Âс HÚQ$`ì%ec0ƒ.ÝÞÑAZð>ÿÙÕ@šˆµÁ"‚ÛԘd?0Üt.`TNgÈbpk6^8o“åý†oWò|œXD˜~000r1fèjPjdà`L`q`¸ 4ljÁä€þN¶=?î0nb˜ÇàÏ î ¼ žx|ÿüÒÀd%¤IiÕ,u !ˆAH9H3ñ5€ bÁy Kaptoul D, Viladrich PF, Domingo C, Niubo J, Martinez-Yelamos S, De Ory F, Tenorio A: West Nile virus in Spain: report of the first diagnosed case (in Spain) in a human with aseptic meningitis. J Am Mosq Contr Assoc. ... important consequence of method of mounting the rotor magnets is the difference between the direct and quadrature axes inductance values. Emerg Infect Dis. 2000, Queensland, Australia: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, WHO: Update of annotated bibliography of papers relating to the control of moquitoes by the use of fish for the years 1965-1981.

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